Contrastive Analysis of Concord in Arabic, English, and Indonesian

: Recognizing the differences in concord among languages will be very important to avoid mistakes in using these languages because concord errors are the most common errors in language use. This article was a contrastive study of concord in Arabic, English, and Indonesian, and the implication of teaching the languages. Through contrastive analysis, the grammatical concord system of the languages was compared to determine the similarities, differences, and teaching implications. Library research was used through a qualitative method. The data was taken mainly from Arabic, English, and Indonesian grammar books. The results showed that the concord in Arabic and English was grammatical, while in Indonesian, it was notional. The element of concord in Arabic was more complex, comprising phrases and clauses, and consisting of five features: person, number, gender, definiteness, and case markers. Meanwhile, the English concord occured on the clause domain of person and number, differing from that of Indonesian which was based on meaning. This study provided an incentive to foreign language tutors, especially, Arabic and English tutors, to develop strategies in helping students master concord and avoid grammatical errors.


Introduction
Studies had shown that concord errors were inevitable among Arabic and English learners. 123Sa'adah found 293 errors from a thousand cases among Arabic learners.
Oribabor stated the different types of errors in English students' essays, such as Subject-Verb in regards to number and person.In addition, Hassan, et.al.found concord errors in English newspapers in Nigeria. 4 This reflects that concord is an important issue that requires consent among teachers and linguists to find solutions to the errors committed by Arabic, English, and Indonesian learners from investigating the difference between Arabic, English, and Indonesian concord.Concord is a linguistic system that requires a match between one element and another in a language structure. 5In English, it is represented in three terms: concord, congruence, and agreement. 6In Arabic linguistics, it is called al-mutabaqah.In Indonesian, it is a synonym of kongruensi 'congruence' and kesesuaian 'conformity'.In this article, concord and agreement are synonymous.Some studies related to concord had been carried out.Haig & Forker wrote 'Agreement in Grammar and Discourse: a research overview.They elaborated the agreement diachronically, and there was an interrelation of pragmatic, semantic, and syntactic factors of agreement. 7Winchester wrote concord and agreement features in modern standard arabic. 8Alsarayreh also wrote negative concord in modern standard arabic. 9This article underlined the hypothesis that there were similarities and differences of concord among Arabic, English, and Indonesian languages.Also, it was predicted that the more complex the concord system a language has, the more difficulties the learners possibly have. 10Based on the theories of concord and the hypothesis mentioned earlier, a contrastive analysis of concord in the three languages was performed and the implication of teaching them was also predicted.No further study had been conducted on a contrastive study on the concord of Arabic, English, and Indonesian and their implication in the teaching practices to the non-native of these languages.To fill this gap, this study was therefore carried out.Theoretically, this article presented the similarities and possible suggestions were made for strategic teaching, which was written in the implication section of this study.These steps were applied in the analysis.

Results and Discussion
Corbett formulated the elements of concord namely domain, controller, target, features, and values 12 through the following chart: From the figure 1, it was observed that the elements of the concord were: a) Domain, which is the syntactic environment where the concord occurs.Grammatically, there are two domains, i.e., clause and phrase.In the example above, the concord domain is a clause "The system works".b) The controller, which means the element that determines the concord, in the example above it is the subject of the noun phrase 'the system'.c) The target is the element whose form is determined by the controller, in this case it is the verb 'works', or the predicate verb which has to be in the third person with "s".d) Feature or category is the aspect where concord occurs, in this case, it is number.e) Value, in this case, the type of the number that occurs in the concord which is a singular.e) The condition refers to the type of concord, whether it is grammatical, notional, internal (syntactic) and external (index) agreement.Based on Corbett's proposal, the concord elements of the Arabic, English, and Indonesian was contrasted and compared through the elements.The domain is the syntactic environment where the concord occurs i.e., the grammatical levels (clauses or phrases).In Arabic, concord was found at the level of phrases and clauses: 12 Greville G.These examples show that the domain of concord in English is a clause between its subject (S) and verb (V).In Indonesian, the domain of concord is on clauses on the basis of semantic aspects, rather than grammatical.Besides, concord also occurs on the pronoun and its antecedent.Example (3) shows that the sentence does not match, the Subject "Batu" (the stone) and the Predicate Verb "memukul" (hit) in terms of their meaning even though it is not grammatically wrong.Semantically, the sentence in the example is unacceptable because 'hitting' requires that the subject is a person and not a stone.This is different from sentence (4), which is accepted because it shows the person as the Subject performing the activity of hitting.
Based on the description, the domain of concord in Arabic is both clause and phrase.That of English is on clause domain.While in Indonesian, it is based on the semantic aspect.Therefore, Arabic has a wider domain of concord, i.e., clause and phrase.Meanwhile, English only has the same clause domain as in Indonesian.Although the concord in Indonesian is notional.The controller is an element that determines the concord.In Arabic, the controller comprises Musnad Ilaih 'Subject' which controls the Musnad 'the predicate or verb on clause domain.The man'ut 'noun' controls the adjective in the noun-adjective phrase.As well as the subject or verb, which controls the adverb of condition 'hal'.
At the phrase domain, Arabic concord is divided into five types, and each unit consists of the controller and target element: Head-Modifier which includes: Table 3, example (1) showing that there is an agreement in the phrase "almu'minu al-Qowiyyu" 'the strong believer' between the noun 'al-mu'minu' and the adjective al-Qowiyyu on the categories of definiteness, number, gender, and case.The definiteness is marked by the alif lam.The singular number in both the noun and the adjective is marked by the absence of dual and plural markers.The masculine gender is marked by the absence of feminine markers on both nouns and adjectives.Meanwhile, the concord on the nominative case is marked by the ending 'dhommah' or "u", in both the noun and the adjective.Meanwhile, dealing with the phrase "al-mu'mini al-dhaʻifi which means 'the weak believer' there is an agreement on the category of the case between the Head 'al-mu'mini' and the modifier al-dhaʻifi, in genetive case marked by the ending kasrah or "i".
The phrase (2) "rajul-un wahid-u" (one man) in the sentence above, shows the concord between the noun rajul-un (a man) and wahidun (one) in the category of singular number, nominative cases, masculine gender, and definiteness.This case also occurs to the dual number as the example 3. The phrase (3) ‫ط‬ ‫اثنان‬ ‫البان‬ 'talibani ithnani' (two students) indicates that there is a concord between head and modifier.Besides, in the phrase between the noun talibani and the numeral ithnani in the category of the number.
talibani and ithnani are dual.They are both masculine gender and nominative cases.The concord of the dualist number is marked by the suffix -ani in each word, which is also the nominative case marker for the dualist noun.The masculine gender is marked by the absence of a feminine marker in each word.Meanwhile, the indefiniteness is marked by the absence of alif lam ta'rif.There is also an agreement in the English translation of "two students", i.e., between the numeral 'two' and the noun 'students'.However, there is no concord in the Indonesian translation of 'dua mahasiswa'.Moreover, in the phrase of Numeral Noun, there is an agreement of numerals and nouns in 4.
Modifier-Head: this phrase comprises demonstrative pronouns-Noun and modality-verb: The phrase Dha tayyarun 'This pilot ' in (

‫طيا‬ ‫ذا‬ ‫ماهر‬ ‫ر‬
) shows that there is a masculine gender and singular number concord between the demonstrative pronoun Dha 'this' and the noun tayyarun.As well as the demonstrative pronoun phrase ( ‫ذى‬ ‫شاعرة‬ ‫)الفتاة‬ Dhi al-fatatu 'ini pemudi' in the example above.This indicated that there is a concord of the demonstrative pronoun Dhi, which is a singular feminine with the noun al-fatatu, which is feminine gender.The phrase ‫يدرس(‬ ‫)مادام‬ shows that the modal verb Ma dama (still) is congruent in the third person category, masculine gender, and singular with the verb ya-drus-u (learn).The suffix -a in modal verbs marks a singular number and masculine gender.In the verb ya-drus-u, the masculine gender is marked by the prefix ya-, and the singular number is indicated by the suffix -u.Therefore, there is concord between the modal and the verb.In contrast, there is no concord in the English phrase of 'still study' and in Indonesian 'masih belajar'.This means that there is no agreement between modal and verb in English and Indonesian.
Head-Head, this phrase comprises the concord between adjectives and Verb-Verb.

Saya berjalan dengan saudaramu, Bakar
The example in the Table 5 showing that there is a concord of the noun 'akhi in the single masculine category in the genitive case.The appositional noun Bakar in the masculine singular category and in the genitive case category.At the clause domain, the concord is based on the clause function filling elements that are contained in 'jumlah ismiyah' (sentence starting with a noun) and at 'jumlah fi'liyah' clauses starting with a verb, between verb and its noun.As well as the concord between Subject or Verb or Object with al-hal 'adverbs of condition'.
In detail at the clause level, concord consists of several units, namely:  (2) Concord on the Predicate Verb -Subjects (P-S) in jumlah fi'liyyah "clause beginning with a verb", including V-S clause: Perfect Verb Predicate-Noun Subject (P: Vp) -(S: N) and V-S clause: Imperfect Verb Predicate-Noun Subject (P: VIP)-(S: N).
For example: Example (1) in the Tabel 7 shows the concord of the masculine gender category and the singular number between the verb hadara 'comes' and the noun al-talibu 'The student'.The masculine gender category is marked by the absence of a feminine indicator, namely ta' ta'nis sakinah.Meanwhile, the singular number category is marked by the absence of dual and plural indicators in the verb and the noun.In the example (2), it appears that there is only a masculine gender category concord in hadara al-talib-ani clause.Meanwhile, the number category concord does not occur, because the verb is singular and the noun is dual marked by -ani.Also, in the example (3) there is no concord of the number category in the clause hadara al-tullabu/al-talib-una, because the verb remains in the singular form, while the noun is in the plural number.Either plural with irregular or regular plural with the marker -una, while for the gender category there is a concord in the clause.Principally, agreement of subject and verb in Arabic depend on word order.When the verb precedes its subject, it remains singular and only in agreement with gender.And when it follows the agent, the verb agrees with the number and gender. 14) Concord between Subject, Predicate, or Object, and al-hal 'Adverb of Condition' including: Subject-adverb, Verb-Adverb, and object-Adverb concord.For example: The girl dances S: N.sing V (with "s" at the end of the verb) 4 The girls dance S: N.pl.V (No "s" at the end of the verb) 5 Batu itu memukul anjing kami S: N V The stone hit our dog.6Budi memukul anjing kami.S: N V Budi (Name of Person) hits our dog.
Clause (1) in the table 8 "Rajaʻa Umar ila baitihi masrur-an" shows that there is a concord between the verb predicate, the noun that functions as the subject and the 'alhal' which means 'adverb of condition' in the singular number category and masculine gender.In this example, the verb is in the form of the third person singular masculine, which is marked by the absence of a feminine indicator, namely ta' ta'nith.Meanwhile, the subject of the personal name Umar shows a singular masculine name and the al-hal which means 'adverb of condition'.Masruratan indicates a single masculine category.
So, there is a concord of the single number category and the masculine gender.The example (2) 'Wassala-t Samiratu rakibat-an' shows that there is a concordance between the verb washallat, which is categorized as feminine with the subject noun.Samirah which is a feminine self-name and is also marked by the feminine marker ta' marbuthah.
As well as the al-hal 'adverb of condition', which shows the feminine gender category marked with ta' marbutah and singular number with no dual or plural markers in the word.Therefore, there is a concord between the singular number and feminine gender categories.
In English, since the concord occurs on Subject and Verb relation, the controller is the Subject which controls the Verb as the target.Morley stated that "A first feature of the subject is that, it is the element that controls the form of the verb".Examples (3) and (4) show that the verb 'dance' should agree with the subject "The girl".When the subject is singular, the verb should be with "s" at the end and when it is plural, the verb should be without "s".This means that the subject is the controller of the verb, which becomes the target of concord.In Indonesian, the controller is the Subject that controls the predicate or Verb on the basis of meaning.As mentioned, the verb "memukul" or 'hit' in examples ( 5) and ( 6) have an agreement with the subject Budi in terms of meaning, while it is not appropriate to the subject of 'anjing' (dog).Based on the notional concord, the subject becomes the controller of the verb or predicate, in Indonesian.
From the explanation and examples mentioned above, it is summarized that the controller and the target in Arabic are the subject, which controls the musnad as the head of phrases.While in English, the controller is the Subject, directing the verb.Also, the same in Indonesian, the Subject directs the predicate on the basis of the meaning.Feature The 1 st Person in Arabic consists of the personal pronouns ‫"أنا"‬ ,'ana' (I) the singular and nahnu or (we) is plural.In the person category, Arabic requires a concord between personal pronouns and verbs.He/she/it dances (3 rd person singular) Dia menari (Indonesian) 8 They dance (3 rd person plural).
Mereka menari (Indonesian) The example (1) in the Table 9 shows that the personal pronoun ‫أنا‬ 'Aaa' (I) and the verb 'azhabu' (I go) have concord in the person category marked by the hamzah prefix ‫"أ"‬ in the verb which is only suitable for the personal pronoun 'Ana' (I).The example (2) 'Anta tara ha fi madmari al-tariq' shows that there is a concord between the 2 nd person singular in personal pronoun 'Anta (You) with the predicate verb 'tara' (see) marked by the prefix "ta" in the verb tara.
In English, the personal pronoun also agrees with the verb in terms of number either singular or plural.The examples (4) to (8) show that when the subjects are I, We, You, and They, the verb 'dance' should be without 's'.However, when the subject is He, She, or It, the verb 'dances' should be with 's'.It indicates that there is an agreement between Persons and Verbs in English.In contrary, in Indonesian, there is no agreement between personal pronoun and the verb.Whatever the subjects are, the verbs remain the same, for examples (in translation of those examples in English).When the subjects: Saya (I), Kami (We), Kamu (You), Dia (He/She), Mereka (They), the verb 'menari' (dance) remain the same.From the explanation and examples, it is observed that in Arabic, concord in Person and Verb are more complex by including 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd subject combining with the number and gender features.While in English, concord differs from 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd person plural without "s".In the verb to 3 rd person singular that the verb must be with an 's/es', and there is no concord in Indonesian between persons and verbs.
In Arabic, there are three kinds of numbers, namely: mufrad (singular), musanna (dual), and jama' (plural). 1516The concord in number category is in noun-adjective phrase and nominal clause domain between Subject and nominal Predicate.For examples: To treat them as hostages is criminal.9 The Brothers Karamazov is undoubtedly Dostoyevsky's master-piece.10 Pelamar banyak, tetapi mereka tidak memenuhi syarat.

N. Pl. Pronoun Pl
There are many applicants, however, they are not qualified 11 Pelamar banyak, tetapi dia tidak memenuhi syarat.N. Pl.Pronoun Sing There are many applicants; however, he is not qualified.
The example (1) in the Table 10 shows that there is a concord between the noun Al-'Adabu 'literature' and the adjective hamidun 'commendable' in the number category, as well as in the example (2) ‫األخوان‬ 'al-'akhawani mujtahidani'.There is a concord in the category of subject dualist al-'akhawani with the adjective complement "mujtahidani" marked by the suffix -ani as a marker of dualist in each of these nouns.While in the example (3) ‫اضرون‬ ‫الطالب‬ 'al-tullabu hadhiruna', there is a concord of the plural category, the noun Al-tullabu is jamaʻ taksir 'broken plural' of al-talibu and the noun hadhiruna is jama' muzakkar salim 'masculine plural' noun which is marked by the suffix -una.
In English, Leech and Starvick stated that concord is on the categories of number.
The concord in English only arises with the present and the past tense verb as in examples 4 to 9. Examples (4) to (7) show that when the subjects are singular, i.e., He, the verb 'knows' with 's' and the past tense "was" is used.Meanwhile, when the subjects are plural 'they' the verb 'know' without 's' and the past tense 'were' is used.This indicates number concord in English.In addition, a clause acting as a subject is regarded as singular.Furthermore, plural words and phrases used as names, titles, quotations, etc. count as singular.Meanwhile, in Indonesian, concord is basically on number and gender through semantic aspect.In terms of numbers, an Indonesian sentence requires agreement in numbers between the pronoun and antecedent as the example ( 10) and ( 11).The antecedent of the pronoun "mereka" 'they' in the sentence (10) is the phrase 'pelamar banyak' (many) applicants.Therefore, the pronoun "dia" 'he' in the sentence ( 11) is not a substitute.This is because plural nouns are an error in terms of meaning when replaced by singular pronouns.Therefore, the sentence requires an agreement in terms of numbers.From the description, it is clear that the concord in Indonesian occurs in the category of number based on the meaning.Dealing with numbers, Arabic and English has concord between subject, verb, and noun phrase in Arabic.While in Indonesian, it is on noun and its antecedent has an external agreement.
In Arabic, there are only two genders, namely mudzakkar ‫'مذكر'‬ (masculine) and mu'annas (feminine). 17181920However, there is also one more category is 'neuter' 21 in the gender category, Arabic also requires gender concord at the noun-adjective phrase and nominal clause domains.22The example (1) and (2) in the Table 11 show the existence of concord in nounadjective phrases.Example (2) shows that there is a masculine gender concord in the noun al-talibu and the adjective muhadhdhab-u, which is unmarked.While example (3) shows the concord of the feminine noun al-talibat-u, which is marked by ta' marbutah.
As well as the adjective muhazzabat-u, which is also feminine and marked by ta' marbutah as the clause of ( 4) and (5).Clause (4) shows that there is a concord in the masculine gender category between the subject Zaidun, the predicate mujtahidun in number, and the gender masculine category, while the example (4) shows a concord between the masculine subject al-mantharu, the noun ra'iʻ-un in the single number category, and the masculine gender.This indicates that there is a concord in the gender category in the noun clause.fi'il 'verb' 24 and na'at 'adjective'. 25In English, it is the verb.While in Indonesia, it is the predicate.
Concord is a special phenomenon of languages.Every language has its own rules on concord.This difference is caused by many aspects such as different word orders such as in Arabic and Urdu, 26 different grammatical categories involve in concord such as Arabic and English, 27 concord principles of grammatical and notional, concord types of internal (syntactic) and external or index agreement, and views on agreement, namely: against purely syntactic, against purely semantics, and purely index agreement approach.
Concord has two principles, namely, grammatical and notional.Grammatical refers to the agreement between subjects, verbs, complements, heads, and modifiers in phrases, pronouns, antecedents, etc.Meanwhile, notional concord is based on meaning or semantics. 28Based on that theory, the concord in Arabic and English is grammatical, while in Indonesia is notional.
Revera stated that there were two types of concord, namely internal or syntactic, and external or index agreement.The first referred to the agreement on the basis of syntactic categories comprising gender, number, and case between a head noun and its modifier.Meanwhile, the second referred to the agreement on the basis of referential indices, such as pronoun-antecedent and subject-verb agreement.Based on this theory,
semantic meaning.In regards to the domain, the Arabic concord is in the clause and phrase aspect.While English and Indonesian have clause domains.The controller of concord in Arabic is Musnad Ilahi, comprising Mubtada' (Subject) in jumlah Ismiyah (sentences preceded with a noun), and Faʻil (subject) in jumlah fi'liyah (clause preceded with verb at clause levels).Then manut (the noun) in noun-adjective phrases.English clause also has Subject as controller.The target in Arabic is khabar or the predicate,23 Corbett, "The Agreement Hierarchy Revisited: The Typology ofControllers," Word  Structure 15, no. 3 (2022): 181-225.

Table . 1
Examples of the Domain of Concord in Arabic, English and Indonesian

Table 1
is showing the phrase (1) al-talibu al-muhadhdhabu in the example above showed that there was a concord in the categories of definiteness, number, gender, and case between the noun al-talibu and the adjective al-muhadhdhabu.The concord on the category of definiteness was marked by alif lam ta'rif in each word, the concord in the category of singular number was indicated by the absence of dual or plural markers in both words.Meanwhile, the masculine gender concord was indicated by the absence of feminine markers.The nominative case concord was marked by the vowel 'u' in the noun and the adjective.If the noun was changed to a feminine type, the adjective would follow.In example (2), the relationship between the Subject and Predicate function shows a concord of the singular number and masculine gender categories.The singular number is indicated by the subject constituent at-talibo-u 'The student' and that of the predicate

Table 2 .
Examples of the Elements of Concord in English and Indonesian

Table 4 .
Examples of Concord Between Ajectives and Verb-Verb 1 The example(1)showing that the coordination of the adjectives kabir-un (big) and jamil-un (beautiful) is in agreement with the masculine gender category, because there is no feminine marker.It functions as a masculine noun predicate, a single number, a non-definiteness, and a nominative case category with a marker of the un-suffix on each of these adjectives.The coordination of two or more nouns combined by a conjunction "harf 'ataf "requires concord in the case category only.The example (2) above shows that there is a concord of the noun al-'ilmi 'science' with al-'adabi (politeness) in the masculine gender, singular number, definiteness, and genetic case category because it is after the preposition "bi" marked with kasrah or sound i at the end of the word.Head-Apposition concord: The opposition in Arabic is called 'badal' which literally means 'substitute'.Terminologically, Badal is a noun that follows another directly as a substitute for the case category.The Apposition in Arabic does not require a concord in the category of definiteness. 13Tabel 5. Concord on Head and Apposition

Table 6
Concord on Noun Subject and Noun Predicate 1

Table 7 .
Concord on Predicate Verb and Subject Noun in Arabic verbal Sentences 1

Table 9 .
Concord on Person in Arabic, English, and Indonesian

Table 10 .
Concord on Number Arabic English and Indonesian

Table 11 .
Concord on the feature of gender in Arabic, English, and Indonesian