Career Decision Self-Efficacy Based on Gender and Socioeconomic Status of University Students in Indonesia

: Overseas students with various gender backgrounds and socioeconomic statuses face various challenges in cultural adaptation in higher education. Hence, it is not uncommon for overseas students to experience stress which affects their career decision self-efficacy. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of overseas students’ career decision self-efficacy, which is influenced by socioeconomic status and gender. Measurements were carried out using the career decision self-efficacy-short form (CDSE-SF) which has been adapted in Indonesian. Respondents in this study amounted to 154 overseas students at universities all across Indonesia. The research method used was comparative research with descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and non-parametric statistics (Spearman and Mann-Whitney U) analysis techniques. The results showed that the highest scores were sequentially in the domains of self-appraisal, goal selection, planning, occupational information, and problem-solving. In the correlation analysis and comparative test, it can be seen that there is no relationship between students’ socioeconomic status and career decision self-efficacy and there is no difference based on gender. The results of the research discussion indicated that family support, acculturation, and career-related training were important in increasing career decision self-efficacy.


Introduction
Higher education is a level of education pursued after students graduate from high school. Based on Indonesia's physical and educational conditions, higher education is mainly located in the city centre, making people from remote areas move and adapt to cultures in their universities. Overseas students are people who leave their original domicile to pursue education outside of their region or another country, either by obtaining scholarships or independently to achieve better quality and quantity of education. Cross-cultural students may experience culture shock related to the absence or distortion of familiar conditions (Ward et al., 2020).
Overseas students aged 18-25 experience a transition from adolescence to young adults who face various stressors such as relationships, diversity, academics, and others (Logan & Burns, 2021) The challenges in higher education are considered more severe because students have to adjust outside the comfort zone of their domiciles. Overseas students also face other challenges in the form of differences in cultural conditions, languages, and cultural habits, as well as new dynamics with the culture in the higher education area. Perception of physical differences and skin colour could also be an obstacle to interaction (Pérez-Urdiales et al., 2019;Slaughter-Acey et al., 2019). Inferiority and sensitivity are some of the personal impacts experienced by overseas students. To deal with these cultural differences, students need knowledge, awareness and cultural skills so as not to experience the impact of culture shock (Sari et al., 2019). Other adjustment challenges that need to be considered by prospective overseas students in new situations are the need to fit themselves into the schedule of classes, learning styles, and other possible difficulties related to language, culture, and personal barriers (Baklashova & Kazakov, 2016).
In a study in the early days of university orientation, overseas students experience culture shock and stress (Fazny, 2019). These conditions impact student learning motivation, mood swings, and decreasing/irregular sleep hours. In addition to that matter, it is known that other stressors can be in the form of (1) difficulty in managing time between coursework and daily tasks; (2) difficulties in managing financial income with the necessities of life, as well as learning necessities in college; (3) difficulty in understanding the language, adjusting the weather temperature and the types of food flavors available; (4) difficulties in adapting to the character of local residents; (5) difficulty withstanding during illness and needing treatment (Fazny, 2019). The failure of overseas students to adjust to college and their overseas environment can cause academic stress (Saniskoro & Akmal, 2017). Furthermore, such matters may also increase psychological stress, which has implications for their education and career development (Thompson et al., 2019). So that the failure of adaptation experienced by students has a big impact on students.
The stress level experienced by overseas students is closely related to self-efficacy (Adian, 2018). Such is the case with the ability of overseas students to adapt, which is still related to their academic self-efficacy (Fitri & Kustanti, 2020). Ideally, when overseas students graduate from university, they will find jobs that are more prestigious than their regional communities who do not have a degree from higher education. It is because overseas students at urban universities have the privilege of accessing better educational facilities, wider networks and the availability of various organizations which are able to hone their soft skills and hard skills.
Although overseas students get the benefit when studying in city colleges, the career choice of overseas students will depend on their ability to choose a career or career decision self-efficacy (Arghode et al., 2020;Gregor et al., 2020). Career decision self-efficacy is fundamental because a career is not just about work but a series of jobs, education, or positions which give color to an individual's life (Hidayat et al., 2019). Self-efficacy in the domain of career development is defined as career self-efficacy, including behavioural aspects of career achievement, academic and career decisions, and career adjustment in both men and women (Abdinoor & Ibrahim, 2019;Chen et al., 2021). Self-efficacy is important in determining a career (Demir, 2020). Self-efficacy in career decisions is self-confidence in behaviour related to career decision-making (El-Hassan & Ghalayini, 2020). The concept of self-efficacy in career decisions was developed from the concept of efficacy proposed by Bandura (1988) as an individual assessment of the success of completing tasks.
Career decision self-efficacy is affected by individual backgrounds, such as gender (Amani, 2016). The difference can be seen in the self-efficacy in women's career decisions which tend to be inferior to men. The attribute of socioeconomic status is another factor that influences career decision self-efficacy. It is because socioeconomic status affects the quality of education, access to health, and other matters that limit individuals in achieving their goals (Ali et al., 2021).
Based on the background of the various challenges experienced by overseas students and their relations to career decision self-efficacy, the purpose of this study was to obtain an overview of self-efficacy in career decisions of overseas students in Indonesia, which is influenced by gender and socioeconomic status.

Method
The research was conducted in the 2020/2021 academic year semester using a quantitative approach with a comparatif method. The research respondents consisted of 154 students aged 18-24 years (M=20.32; SD=1.12) who were overseas students from various regions in Indonesia.
In this study, the measurement used was the CDSE Short Form (SF), which consisted of 25 items with 5-point answer choices ranging from no confidence to complete confidence. Measuring the same 5 domains, namely self-appraisal, occupational information, goal selection, planning, and problem-solving. Five answer choices were used in the CDSE-SF instrument because they were shorter than the 10 answer choices but still maintained the same reliability and validity as the 10 answer choices. The total score was calculated from the total of 25 items, it indicates that the greater the number of scores, the higher the career decision self-efficacy. In this study, the used CDSE-SF was adapted in Indonesian. data analysis used in this research was Spearman and Mann-Whitney U-test.This section describes how the research reported was conducted. If the research is quantitative research, the primary material in this research method consists of (1) research variables, (2) research design, (3) population and sample, (4) data collection techniques and instrument development, and (4) data analysis technique. If the research is a qualitative study, this section outlines the approaches and methods used in research, as is the case with qualitative research.

Results and Discussion
The data that has been collected is analyzed by calculating the average of each domain. The description of the research results is presented in the following In accordance with the descriptive data analysis, it can be seen that female students have a higher score for all of the domains and total CDSE. The score differences between the gender are 1,01 to 1,88 for the domains and 6,91 for the total score. Further analysis has been done using a comparative analysis.
In the comparison test based on gender, the analysis performed was Mann-Whitney U with the assumption that the data were not normally. The results of the comparative test showed that there was no difference in career decision self-efficacy based on gender. Note. *p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; N = total sample; SES = Socio-Economic Status. CDSE-SF = Career Decision Self-Efficacy -Short Form The correlation analysis performed was Spearman since the data did not meet the normal assumptions (SES = 0.00; CDSE-SF = 0.00). Based on the results of the analysis, it indicates that there is no relation between the socioeconomic status of overseas students and self-efficacy in choosing a career.
Regarding to data per domain, overseas students have the highest mean score in the self-appraisal domain (M = 4.39; SD = 3.68). Self-appraisal relates to an individual's knowledge about himself related to job opportunities. Self-appraisal assesses psychological conditions to evaluate and measure individual abilities (Crites, 1973). In the self-appraisal domain, the average score of overseas students was higher than that of African-American students (M = 4.00; SD = 0.72) (Chaney et al., 2007). The perspective of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SSCT) may help individuals understand the interaction between an understanding of self-efficacy and the decision-making process, for example, by using the card sorts strategy (Zhang & Yuen, 2022).
Occupational information relates to the individual's knowledge about employers in various occupations (Bagdadli & Gianecchini, 2019;Jiang et al., 2022). In the domain of occupational information, the mean score of overseas students was lower (3.53) compared to African-American students (M = 4.10; SD = 0.73) (Chaney et al., 2007). Information about work is an important element in career counseling. Students can get career information from various nearby sources, such as parents or friends, then it is best followed by other sources such as online job sites, pamphlets or books (Le et al., 2020).
Goal selection is the individual's competency to determine the career goals in which he is interested and confident. In this domain, an individual's ability to adjust an individual to a suitable job is measured (Crites, 1973). In the goal selection domain, the mean score of overseas students was higher (M = 4.23; SD = 3.17) compared to African-American students (M = 4.00; SD = 0.79) (Chaney et al., 2007).In the theory of person-environment fit, the interaction between the person and the environment may occur when each fulfils the conditions that shall be met and has the capability to interact (Choi et al., 2020).
Looking to the future or planning is a competency related to planning to achieve career goals. In the domain of planning, the mean score of overseas students was lower (M = 3.77; SD = 1.02) compared to African-American students (4.00; 0.77) (Chaney et al., 2007). Individuals are able to do life-planning exercises to identify past and present situations to focus on future tasks (Procentese et al., 2021).
Problem-solving is about what individuals must do in handling challenges. This domain is the one with the lowest mean score compared to other domains. In the problem-solving domain, the average score of overseas students was lower (M = 3.31; SD = 0.92) compared to African-American students (M = 4.00; SD = 0.68) (Chaney et al., 2007). In improving this competency, counselors at universities or career advisors who work in career centers may explain the steps of the career decision-making model, before inviting students to identify problems and solve them using these steps (Wahyuningsih & Nugraha, 2021).
In table 3, it shows that the mean score of female students is greater than that of male students with a difference in the mean score of 0.27. This result is different from the research conducted by (Shin & Lee, 2018), which showed that men's average score was greater than women's. Another study conducted in Tanzania also resulted in the scores of female students were lower than male students, as this was different from the results of overseas students in Indonesia (Amani, 2016). When the intervention was applied, female students had a higher increase in career self-efficacy compared to male students (Makransky et al., 2020).
The results of the comparative test based on gender, which are not significant, are also seen in the results of Shin & Lee (2018) research, which showed no difference in gender in student respondents. This result is different from research conducted by Amani (2016) , which showed significant differences in female and male students.
Based on the results of the correlation analysis, there is no significant relationship between the socioeconomic status of overseas students and career decision self-efficacy. The results of this correlation are similar to the research by Shin & Lee (2018) that socioeconomic status does not significantly contribute to self-efficacy in student career choices.
Factors such as (1) classicism which is prejudice and discrimination based on social class, (2) sexism which is prejudice and discrimination based on gender, (3) ability in selfcontrol, and (4) luck are factors that contribute to students' career decision self-efficacy (Shin & Lee, 2018) Another factor that significantly influences (medium to high scores) career decision self-efficacy of overseas students is the factor of cultural acculturation and career network-building skills obtained on overseas campuses (Nadermann & Eissenstat, 2018). The influence of family, social life and the increase in self-potential development in overseas regions also possesses a close interconnection with career choices for overseas students (Wu, 2020). Family social support is also significantly related to final-year students' career decisionmaking (Salwani & Cahyawulan, 2022).
In increasing competency related to career decisions, individuals may increase their curiosity (Akosah-Twumasi et al., 2018) For overseas students, having an ethnic identity will assist in connecting their curiosity with self-efficacy in career decision. The success of an individual's career decision self-efficacy is also affected by family relations which are mediators of acculturation and career decision self-efficacy (Suh & Flores, 2022). Sibling support influences career decision self-efficacy for overseas students who have different values from their parents (Wang & Jiao, 2022).
Students will face a transition from school to the world of work, hence universities must be able to provide training for students in making career decisions. Universities may provide training that focuses on proactive thinking, role models, and family involvement, especially for students with lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Xin et al., 2020). Likewise, the provision of comprehensive and culturally competent services is also necessary for overseas students, such as the comprehension to take advantage of campus career centre services; comprehension that campus extracurricular activity is able to support career competence; how to prepare for an internship, prepare to apply for a job; procedures for answering interview questions, information on job profession policy regulations; universities expand alternative networks of cooperation as career and learning opportunities both within and outside the country; the availability of professionals who are mindful of multicultural biases and misperceptions in the career planning of overseas students; as well as collaboration between overseas students, professional career counselors and stakeholders who provide employment opportunities (Balin et al., 2016).
The university can provide various services to students, including in a group or individual setting. The courses, workshops, seminars, and group counseling will help student groups improve career decision-making or help them manage career issues, while individual career counseling and placement services can be taken individually (Hite & McDonald, 2020). So counseling services in universities are very important.
Constructivist career course interventions may be arranged to integrate multicultural and career competencies in overseas students as they can increase the five domains of selfefficacy in career selection (Taylor & Trevino, 2022). The concept of career construction regards individuals as being able to construct a picture of their reality (Cahyawulan, 2017). This will greatly assist students in preparing and making career decisions.
Shorter interventions such as Career Exploration, Development, and Resources group (CEDAR) may also increase career decision self-efficacy. Interventions given for eight weeks with meetings once per week for an hour can increase self-knowledge and self-esteem, learn career development skills, and gain support and communication from peers with similar cultural backgrounds (Lotfalinezhad et al., 2022). So that the provision of information services regarding careers on a regular basis will add insight into students regarding their future careers.
Being an immigrant does not mean having low career decision self-efficacy compared to non-migrants. Such is because immigrants who study at reputable universities can apply strategic behaviours that impact self-confidence in making career decisions (Albornoz-Arias & Santafé-Rojas, 2022;Vergara-Rodríguez et al., 2022).
This research shows that gender and SES are not directly effected the career decisionmaking of university students who experienced culture shock as an impact of cross-culture. To understand the factors related to career decision-making skills, we need to explore other factors, including psychological attributes and environmental factors.

Conclusions and Suggestions
Dealing with the finding, it revealed that overseas students had the highest scores in the self-appraisal domain, followed by the highest to the lowest scores in the domains of goal selection, planning, occupational information, and problem-solving. The analysis of the relationship between the variables of socioeconomic status and career decision self-efficacy indicated that there was no relationshop between the socioeconomic background of overseas students and career decision self-efficacy. A similar matter could be seen from the comparative test results on career decision self-efficacy based on gender.
The results showed that apart from the gender and socioeconomic status of students, cultural acculturation factors and family support contributed to career decision self-efficacy. Furthermore, universities must pay attention to provide services for students in developing their career decision self-efficacy. Services that can be provided such as courses, group counseling, individual career counseling, and placement programs. Various successful training has been given, including cultural and constructivist perspectives.