A Thematic Review on Exploring Ethnoscience in Science Education: A Case in Indonesia

_______________________ *Correspondence Address: yohaneskasi@upi.edu Abstract: This study aims to review the ethnoscience studies in science education in Indonesia thematically. From 2010 to 2020, the databases contained 71 relevant articles of ethnoscience studies. These studies belonged to the content analysis theme parameters of method/design, sample, data collection, data analysis, topic, result, recommendation, and location. The results indicated that most of the ethnoscience studies explored the effect of integrating ethnoscience with the lessons to investigate students’ achievement and attitudes towards science. Correspondingly, the investigated studies mostly used Research and Development (R & D) and experimental research design. The preferred data collecting techniques were tests (multiplechoice/description), questionnaires, and observation. Moreover, seventh and eighth graders of junior high school commonly employed the argumentation activities in physics, chemistry, biology, and basic concept of science topics. This study suggests the teachers employ different methods (e.g., ethnoscience) to improve concept understanding, problem-solving skills, critical thinking skills, and motivation in learning science from the primary school level. Furthermore, resources from cultural activities in Indonesia are beneficial for integrating ethnoscience in learning.


INTRODUCTION
Teachers or pre-service teachers should understand their role as the learning resources for the students (Azizah, Hasibuan & Paristiowati, 2021;Kapofu, 2019;Treagust, D. F., Won, M., Petersen, J., & Wynne, 2015). The competency-based approach implies essential modifications in the curriculum and teaching, especially in expressing how teachers interpret learning. The traditional emphasis has been on reproducing understanding rather than its transmission to real-world situations (Aydin, 2012). These approaches rely on the teachers' competence. It is necessary to focus not only on the knowledge but also on the skills (Wallace & Priestley, 2016). One approach to teaching science is the ethnoscience approach, which teaches through students' personal and cultural strengths, knowledge capabilities, and prior achievements (Abonyi O.S, 2004). Ethnoscience was selected as it investigates original knowledge of the societies and changes it into a scientific one (Davison, D. M. & Miller, 1998;Jegede, O. J. & Okebukola, 1991;Vlaardingerbroek, 1990).
The application of the ethnoscientific teaching approach is hence based on the references to the Science for All Movement. The movement emphasizes that a) the content, language, symbols, designs, and purpose of the curriculum should be linked to day-to-day experiences and goals, b) theory should be linked to practice, human purpose, the quality of life, and in-school experience to out-of-school experience; and, c) teaching and learning should begin from the beliefs, interests, and learning skills that students bring to the classroom and should help them develop and extend their ability and understanding (e.g. (Fasasi, 2017;Hiwatig, 2008).
Indonesia is now implementing the curriculum 2013 to foster students' critical thinking and actively looking for information, explaining a phenomenon, and giving explanations to a problem (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2014). The curriculum 2013 supports and involves the culture and local wisdom in science. It means that science teachers must be approachable to the development of culture and local wisdom (Sudarmin et al., 2019) by utilizing technology to be linked in learning (Bitner & Bitner, 2002). Also, to build interest and the ability to improve their learning process.
The variables mentioned above are the targets of the science curriculum. The ethnoscience design related to science education research has constantly been preferred. Analyzing the ethnoscience in science learning and presenting the past progress of ethnoscience is important to understand its general outcome. Therefore, the purposes, methods, sample, data collection, data analysis, topics, results, recommendations, and location might provide a rounded interpretation to ethnoscience. (Baǧ & Çalik, 2017) concluded the argumentation studies (between 2006 until 2016) to categorize the effectiveness of the argumentation studies according to purpose, method, sample, conclusion, and recommendation. Similarly, this analysis would deliver understandings of the outcomes of ethnoscience studies. Furthermore, a thematic review of ethnoscience would also enlighten potential studies.
Indonesia is an archipelagic country that has a variety of cultural riches. These cultural activity resources are also related to science concepts, so that several research focuses have examined culturebased science learning (e.g. Sturtevant, 2017;Price, C. A. & Chiu, 2018;Ardianti, S. D., Wanabuliandari, S., Saptono, S. & Alimah, 2019;Hiwatig, 2008). However, no research has analyzed the extent of scientific research in Indonesia and its distribution. This study is expected to thematically review the ethnoscience studies from 2010 to 2020 with the following research questions: (1) What are the purposes of ethnoscience exploration?; (2) What are the research methods?; (3) Which sampling technique was employed by the research?; (4) What are the data collection techniques?; (5) What are the analysis methods?; (6) What are the topics?; (7) What are the results?; (8) What recommendations were produced?; (9) Where is the research conducted?
Categorizing ethnoscience studies is ascetically vital for the related literature. This thematic analysis can guide the researchers to devise ethnoscience research efficiently. Assumed the previous topics, the current research is beneficial to cover the related literature. Henceforth, this research recommends the researchers, teachers, and curriculum developers trace the predispositions of ethnoscience studies by decreasing their capacities.

METHOD
This research engaged the thematic review (e.g., science and social education) through creating topics and models (Baǧ & Çalik, 2017 The parameters were the purpose, method/design, sample, data collection, data analysis, subject, general knowledge claim, recommendation, and location. An example of the data analysis is displayed in Table 1. The research had been categorized and coded distinctly (see Table 1). Therefore, an overall of 80 codes was produced. The reviewed research was carefully inspected to avoid any missing data. The coding technique was carried out based on the parameters. All codes for each study were completely performed to minimalize any error. This process took about a month involving a group of experts (researchers and two postgraduate students, who enrolled in 'Metasynthesis applications in primary teacher education). They independently coded two studies randomly selected from the coding.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Frequencies of the ethnoscience purposes and correlated codes are presented in Table 2.  Table 2 displays the purposes contained in four different codes. These codes identify scientific concepts in local culture and their usefulness in learning science. The design-based ethnoscience comprises creating any teaching material and evaluation tool using ethnoscience and analyzing its efficiency. Additionally, the relationship between different variables on ethnoscience holds the connections between some variables. Table  2 informs that 14 ethnoscience studies focused on identifying scientific concepts in local culture and their usefulness in learning science. On the other hand, the designbased ethnoscience consisted of 29 studies (20 booklet, 5 students worksheet, and 4 technology-based media). Furthermore, the effect of different teaching tools using ethnoscience and the relationship between different variables (s) on ethnoscience consisted of 22 and 50 studies.   Table 4. As can be seen in Table 4, frequencies of the sample in the ethnoscience studies were 11 for teachers, 13 for people, 4 for college students, 1 for K-12, 6 for K-11, 6 for K-10, 2 for K-9, 12 for K-8, 16 for K-7, 0 for K-6, 6 for K-5, 1 for K-4, and 1 for K-3.
Frequencies of the data collection tools in the ethnoscience studies are available in Table 5.  Frequencies of the data analysis in the ethnoscience studies are shown in Table 6.  Table  6 shows that five ethnoscience studies used descriptive quantitative analysis, while 32 employed descriptive qualitative analysis. Frequencies of the ethnoscience studies that used the t-test, N-gain, effect size, Wilcoxon, ANCOVA, and Mann Whitney U were 14, 14, 1, 0, and 0, respectively. Similarly, 22 of these studies arranged alternative scoring keys. Further, frequencies of the ethnoscience studies employed correlation (0), ANOVA (1), MANOVA (1), and regression (0).
Frequencies of the topic in the ethnoscience studies are displayed in Table 7. As seen in Table 7, 19 of the ethnoscience studies focused on physics topics while 17 focused on chemistry.
Furthermore, 16 studies focused on biology, 12 focused on the basic concept of a science topic, and 7 focused on ethnoscience. As seen in Table 8, the frequency of the ethnoscience-oriented curriculum was five. Similarly, frequencies of the ethnoscience studies with technology activities, learning strategies, integrated teaching material, local science learning resources, and not applicable were 5, 16, 21, 8, and 2, respectively. As seen in Table 9, 49 of the ethnoscience studies mentioned the effectiveness of the teaching intervention. Furthermore, 47 out of 49 ethnoscience studies had a positive effect, while one portrayed a neutral result. Also, one study described a negative effect. There are 54 ethnoscience studies focused on factors influences. Frequencies of the view of ethnoscience and effectiveness of technology integrated ethnoscience were 14 and 5. As seen in Table 10, 27 of the  ethnoscience studies recommended classroom practices, while 15 suggested the implications for future research. Also, 28 of them recommended design-based studies.
As seen in Table 11, 53 of the ethnoscience studies were located on Java island (31 in Central Java, 18 in East Java, and 4 in West Java). The ethnoscience studies' frequency in Sumatera, Kalimantan, Bali Island, West Nusa Tenggara, and Papua were 5, 2, 2, 3, and 5, respectively. Further, frequencies of the ethnoscience studies located in East Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, and Maluku were 1, 0, and 0.

Figure 1. The Distribution of Ethnoscience Studies in Indonesia
Assumed the results of the ethnoscience studies, a high number of the code 'Identification scientific concepts in local culture and their usefulness in learning science' (see Table 2) might be identified as a teaching resource (Pauka et al., 2005). A number of the ethnoscience studies under the code 'Design-based ethnoscience' may result from developing teaching material, evaluation tools, and others based on the ethnoscience. Integrating ethnoscience in science education seems to be a functioning technique to comprehend the purposes of many science curriculum improvements (Roth, W. M., Lee, Y. J. & Hsu, 2009;Davison, D. M. & Miller, 1998). Furthermore, teachers give a positive perception about using the teaching materials based on technology to increase student motivation (Wood et al., 2005). An uncountable ethnoscience study under the code 'The effect of different teaching strategies using ethnoscience' was appropriate for integrating teaching strategy (Fasasi, 2017;Erbas, 2018). This result might consequence the learning model multifaceted of integrating teaching strategy using ethnoscience. Besides, high frequencies of the ethnoscience studies under the code 'The relationship between different variable(s) on ethnoscience' reveal a good point from this integration. It may have originated from a straightforward base of relationships as associated with ethnoscience studies.
The fact that ethnoscience studies frequently used Research and Development (R&D) (see Table 3) may be derived from the nature of some variables based on ethnoscience. Research and Development (R&D) may be observed as more appropriate to explore some aspects. Subsequently, there are no frequencies of ethnoscience studies with mixed-method (quantitative and qualitative). Some ethnoscience studies used the experimental research methodology, quantitative, and qualitative methods originated from a comprehensive examination and data triangulation requirement. Furthermore, few studies employed action research, case study, and ethnographic research may be caused by various requirements and assignments (present shared interpretation(s) of quantitative methodologies, a lack of knowledge of these methodologies, data collection, analysis, sample, etc.).
The common part of the ethnoscience studies was focused on teachers' level (see Table 4) that might originate from the assumption that teachers' knowledge is an important key in the learning process. Teachers' engagements in learning facilitate their students' learning (Sgouros, G. & Stavrou, 2019;McNeal, P., Petcovic, H. & Reeves, 2017;Amin & Vithal, 2015). Furthermore, the minority of the ethnoscience studies were carried out on K-7 until K-10 level because the students were in their critical age stages. Also, the ethnoscience studies were carried out to K-3 until the K-6 level. Henceforth, how students progress ethnoscience should be discovered. However, the unfinished number of ethnoscience studies in the lower levels may originate from the science topics' difficulties.
The ethnoscience studies were mostly dominated by tests (multiplechoice/description) and questionnaires (see Table 5). A higher frequency of open-ended questions in the quantitative research procedures might originate from choosing the Research and Development (R&D) and experimental research methodology. Nonetheless, these tests were frequently used to examine the consequence(s) of ethnoscience on other independent variables (e.g., problemsolving skills, critical skills, and scientific literacy). The time efficiency appears to have fortified researchers to choose these tests (Günay & Aydin, 2015).
Related to the other data collection tools, the frequencies of the ethnoscience studies employing audio-video records were lower than tests, questionnaires, and interviews. It might be caused by ethnoscience studies that are resolute from the apprehensions of misplaced data. Audio-video records are generally only used to recurrent viewing essential data collection. The benefits of the test, questionnaire, and interview appear to be more appropriate for ethnoscience studies because they strengthen the data that has been obtained.
The frequencies of the ethnoscience studies using quantitative and qualitative data analysis were practically identical (see Table 6). The ethnoscience studies seem to have comprehensive results with quantitative data analysis completed by qualitative data analysis. The frequency of qualitative descriptive analysis and alternative scoring keys was somewhat higher than that of content analysis may stem from the impression descriptive analysis is more suitable and timeefficient to answer research questions in investigating tests, questionnaires, and interviews. A high frequency of t-test and N-gain might have originated from the experimental research methodology with pre-and post-test design. Correspondingly, the effect size in the quantitative analysis is important in studies exploring the effects of ethnoscience. In other opinions, this might originate from the studies considering the impact (s) of data collection tools. Moreover, the incomplete correlation and regression analysis frequency may be accredited to rare studies concentrating on the relations between aspects based on ethnoscience.
The frequency of the ethnoscience studies on physics, chemistry, biology, and basic concept of science (see Table 7) was similar. Many cultural activities in Indonesia have different explanations in science. The topics such as global warming, heat transfer, sounds, salt hydrolysis, addictive substances, colloids, ecosystems, and environmental pollution are discussed since medium level (K-7, K-8, etc.).
A high frequency of the ethnoscience studies under ethnoscience with integrated teaching material (see Table 8) might be caused by simplicity in integrating ethnoscience in the learning process (Prins et al., 2019). Moreover, ethnoscience studies seem to have compensated more consideration for developing some aspects. The low frequency of the ethnoscience-oriented curriculum and technology activities was difficult to integrate one concept into another concept in the culture activity (Barak & Hussein-Farraj, 2012). New science education programs failed to realize the importance of culture and the process of technology design and transfer (Nweke et al., 2014).
Most of the ethnoscience studies generated positive effects (see Table 9). This significance might have originated from existing teaching strategies. The neutral outcome in the ethnoscience studies may be originated from the chosen interference proposed by the science curriculum. Correspondingly, an adverse effect may be caused by the inappropriate use of ethnoscience. The frequencies of the factors influencing ethnoscience might come from many studies that reveal the impact of culture-related instruction in science learning. Nevertheless, few studies examined the effectiveness of technology integrated ethnoscience may curtail from a precedence awareness.
The ethnoscience studies recommended several suggestions for design-based studies (Abonyi O.S, 2004). Besides, the ethnoscience studies recommended several suggestions for classroom practice and future types of research that examine the relationships between some variables. Such a piece of knowledge for future research might result from identifying varied factors.
The frequency of research location in ethnoscience is dominated in the Java island because many cultural activities in Javanese can be explained scientifically. Besides, many researchers in Java consider the importance of culture in the classroom. Otherwise, the East Nusa Tenggara area, which has a lot of cultural activities, gets a low research frequency.
The traditional house of Nagekeo district, East Nusa Tenggara 'Soa Waja Ji Vao,' has a stage with a red cover as a roof. As the concept of science, the purpose of making a house on stilts is for air ventilation process under the floor of the board (stage) to reduce room humidity. Furthermore, the use of Imperata as a roof aims to isolate heat radiation from the sun because Imperata is a porous or hollow material. Other cultural activities (social context) that are contrary to the scientific context are the activity of burning wilderness/forest before the start of the hunting event. This burning aims to make it easier for people to see the animals. This activity is contrary to the scientific context of biological diversity. The argument is that biological diversity underpins the functioning of ecosystems and the provision of services essential to human well-being, further contributing to economic development (Gonçalves et al., 2019). Additionally, the ritual of "Ngoa Ngii "or cutting teeth for girls in parts of Nagekeo is a sign of self-maturity. This ritual is contrary to the concept of science since the tooth enamel will decrease, thereby accelerating damage to the teeth. Indigenous science knowledge should be part of the school curriculum in cultural activities. Curriculum developers and educators need to collaborate with community elders to negotiate indigenous ways of living when teaching science (Glasson et al., 2010).

CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis, the purposes of ethnoscience were dominated by the effect of teaching strategy using ethnoscience, while the frequency of design-based ethnoscience using technology was lower. The frequencies of the method/design were dominated by R & D, while the frequencies of action research and case study were lower. The research sample was dominated by the seventh and eighth graders of junior high school. Furthermore, data collection tools were dominated by tests (Multiplechoice/essay) and questionnaires. The descriptive analysis and physics topics dominated the studies. The types of ethnoscience were dominated by ethnoscience with integrated teaching material and general knowledge. Mostly, his ethnoscience studies yielded positive effects. The design-based studies got the most frequency. The ethnoscience studies were mostly done in the Central Java area.
The ethnoscience research in the Nagekeo district is very useful since it identifies scientific concepts in cultural activities. The science concepts in culture can be brought into science education as a method, model, and learning media to improve students' concept understanding, creative and critical thinking, scientific literacy, and problem-solving skills. If the teacher implements science education well, the students can possess a sense of unity (Rachmadtullah et al., 2020). Ethnoscience research can improve the teachers' abilities (Rahmawati, Y., Ridwan, A., Cahyana, U. & Wuryaningsih, 2020;Haidar, 2002) to master the concepts of science (content) and learning management (pedagogy).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researcher sincerely thank Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan (LPDP) and Departemen Keuangan Indonesia for the financial support during the researcher's study at Indonesia University of Education.